Psychology & Sociology
The incentive theory of motivation proposes that people perform behaviors to gain external rewards or to avoid punishment. The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that actions are motivated by a combination of how badly someone wants an outcome and the likelihood that their efforts would result in achieving the desired outcome. Motivation is derived from three main factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
The opponent-process theory of motivation suggests an initial emotional reaction to a stimulus called an A-process will always be followed by a lagging opposing emotional reaction called a B-process. This theory can be applied to drug addiction to explain why people are motivated to use drugs even when they experience negative effects like withdrawal. Sexual motivation is the desire to engage in sexual behaviors. Masters and Johnson's landmark study demonstrated that physiologically, sexual responses are extremely similar between sexes. They divided the sexual response into four phases: the excitement phase, the plateau phase, the orgasm phase, and the resolution phase, which includes the refractory period.
Lesson Outline
<ul> <li>Incentive theory of motivation <ul> <li>People perform behaviors to gain external rewards or to avoid punishment.</li> </ul> </li> <li>Expectancy theory of motivation <ul> <li>Actions are motivated by a combination of desire for an outcome and the likelihood of achieving it.</li> <li>Three main factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence</li> <li>Motivation is highest when all three factors are high.</li> </ul> </li> <li>Opponent-process theory of motivation <ul> <li>Initial emotional reaction (A-process) followed by a lagging opposing emotional reaction (B-process)</li> <li>With repeated exposure to the stimulus, A-process weakens and B-process strengthens</li> <li>Explains drug addiction via weakening pleasure and strengthening withdrawal experience</li> </ul> </li> <li>Sexual motivation <ul> <li>Desire to engage in sexual behaviors</li> </ul> </li> <li>Masters and Johnson's sexual response cycle <ul> <li>Four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution</li> <li>Excitement phase: increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and blood flow</li> <li>Plateau phase: increased blood flow to sex organs, full erection, pre-ejaculatory fluid, and swelling of the vagina</li> <li>Orgasm phase: rapid, rhythmic muscle contractions and ejaculation</li> <li>Resolution phase: return to unaroused state, decrease in blood pressure, and muscle relaxation</li> <li>Refractory period: length of time after an orgasm during which another orgasm is not possible</li> </ul> </li> </ul>
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FAQs
Incentive theory is a behavioural approach to motivation, which claims that motivation is driven by the desire to obtain external rewards or incentives. According to this theory, people make choices based on obtaining a positive, rewarding experience or avoiding punishment.
Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is determined by a combination of three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Expectancy refers to the belief that the individual’s effort will lead to a successful outcome. Instrumentality is how likely an individual thinks it is that their level of performance will lead to an anticipated reward. Valence refers to the value placed on the expected outcome or reward. Individuals and groups may have different levels of motivation because they have different beliefs and expectations concerning these three factors. For example, one individual may believe that their effort will lead to a high performance level and rewards, whereas another person might not hold such beliefs, resulting in differing levels of motivation between those two individuals.
Opponent-process theory is a model explaining emotional dynamics and response to stimuli, including pleasurable activities like drug use. The theory posits that any intense emotional response (the primary process) will trigger a regulatory response (the opponent process), which acts to counterbalance the original emotion. In the context of drug addiction, the pleasurable effects of a drug (primary process) will trigger the body's defense mechanisms to counteract those effects (opponent process). Over time, the opponent process becomes stronger and more rapid, resulting in tolerance, dependence, and addiction. Ultimately, the individual continues to use the drug to avoid the negative sensations caused by the opponent process, leading to a vicious cycle of addiction.
Masters and Johnson were two pioneering sexologists who conducted extensive research on human sexuality and sexual behavior. One of their most significant contributions was the development of the "sexual response cycle," which divided the process of sexual response into four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. This model provided a comprehensive framework for understanding the physiological and psychological aspects of sexual behavior, and it has contributed significantly to the field of sex therapy. By studying the sexual response cycle, Masters and Johnson improved the understanding of sexual motivation and the factors that can influence a person's desire for and satisfaction with sexual activities.
The refractory period is a phase following an orgasm during which an individual becomes temporarily unresponsive to sexual stimuli and is unable to achieve another orgasm. This refractory period varies depending on age, sex, and individual factors, and can range from a few minutes to several hours or even longer. The refractory period plays a role in sexual motivation by influencing the desire and frequency of engaging in sexual activities. During the refractory period, sexual motivation is typically reduced, allowing the body to recover from the intense physiological processes that occur during the sexual response cycle. Once the refractory period is over, sexual motivation may gradually return, prompting the individual to seek out sexual stimuli once more.
