Pharmacology
Summary
The multifaceted processes behind nausea and vomiting are central to understanding the role and efficacy of antiemetic agents. Various triggers, such as infections, medications, vestibular dysfunctions, and exposure to radiation or chemotherapy, initiate the vomiting response. Central to this coordinated response is the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), which integrates signals from various sources within the medulla. A primary source among these is the gastrointestinal tract. Specific irritants, like infections or chemotherapy, prompt the release of serotonin from enterochromaffin cells, which then activates 5-HT3 receptors on vagal afferent nerves that stimulate the NTS, leading to emesis. Ondansetron exemplifies the action of antiemetic drugs, serving as a potent 5-HT3 serotonin receptor antagonist. Furthermore, antihistamines and antimuscarinic drugs play an important role in addressing motion sickness and vestibular nausea by antagonizing H1 (histamine) and M1 (muscarinic) receptors in the NTS respectively. In addition, the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) in the area postrema emerges as a significant mediator of the vomiting response. It houses a variety of receptors, including dopamine, serotonin, and histamine, and serves as an intermediary for vagal afferents en route to the NTS. Drugs like metoclopramide, a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist, have proven effective in curbing chemotherapy-induced vomiting. The CTZ's neurokinin-1 (NK-1) receptor is inhibited by aprepitant, further broadening the antiemetic therapeutic spectrum. Complementing these primary agents, glucocorticoids, benzodiazepines, and cannabinoids amplify the counteraction against chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, often augmenting the efficacy of 5-HT3 antagonists.
Lesson Outline
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FAQs
Antiemetic agents primarily target the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) in the brain, commonly referred to as the vomiting center. This region orchestrates the vomiting response to various stimuli. Communication between the gastrointestinal (GI) system and the NTS is majorly facilitated by the CN X (vagus nerve). When irritants are present in the GI system, serotonin is released from enterochromaffin cells, which activates 5-HT3 receptors, transmitting signals via the vagus nerve to the NTS, resulting in nausea and emesis.
Vestibular nausea arises from the stimulation of the vestibular system, often due to motion sickness or conditions like Meniere's disease. This stimulation activates M1 (muscarinic) and H1 (histamine) receptors in the vestibular system. Their activation sends signals to the NTS through CN VIII. Antimuscarinics, like scopolamine, antagonize M1 receptors, while antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine, meclizine, and promethazine, target H1 receptors, thereby reducing the nausea sensation.
Chemotherapy can induce the release of emetogenic substances into the bloodstream. The chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ), located in the area postrema with a permeable blood-brain barrier, detects these substances using its chemoreceptors. Within the CTZ, there are D2 and NK-1 receptors. Metoclopramide, a D2 receptor antagonist, acts here and in the GI tract to increase gastric emptying and reduce nausea and emesis. Other D2 receptor antagonists like prochlorperazine also play a role, while NK-1 receptor antagonists, such as aprepitant, block substance P activation in the CTZ, providing an antiemetic effect especially potent against chemotherapy-induced symptoms.
Metoclopramide, while effective, has multiple potential side effects including diarrhea, depression, drowsiness, fatigue, and more serious adverse effects like extrapyramidal symptoms, tardive dyskinesia with chronic use, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, elevated prolactin levels, and QT prolongation. It's also contraindicated in cases of small bowel obstruction.
Ondansetron belongs to the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist class, which includes others like granisetron and palonosetron. These agents block the activation of 5-HT3 receptors in the GI tract by serotonin, proving effective against nausea and emesis caused by chemotherapy, radiation, GI infections, and surgical procedures. Adverse effects of ondansetron include constipation, headache, dizziness, QT prolongation, and in combination with other serotonergic medications, the potential risk for serotonin syndrome.
Yes, besides the primary classes discussed, glucocorticoids like dexamethasone and methylprednisolone, benzodiazepines, and synthetic cannabinoids have antiemetic properties. These are often added to regimens, especially in the context of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, to enhance therapeutic outcomes.
