Pathophysiology
Summary
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), commonly referred to as ‘brittle bone disease’, is a hereditary condition originating from anomalies in type I collagen. Type I collage is an essential constituent of various tissues, including scar tissue, bones, tendons, ligaments, skin, and the sclera of the eyes. Structurally, type I collagen is designed as a triple helix, encompassing two alpha-1 chains and one alpha-2 chain.
OI predominantly follows an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern and can exist in various forms, each differentiated by the specifics of the collagen defect. For instance, Type 2 OI is characterized by mutations that impede the formation of the type I collagen triple helix, yielding aberrant collagen. In type 2 disease, patients manifest with multiple fractures often beginning in utero, making this form lethal. In contrast, individuals with Type 1 OI possess collagen of standard quality but in diminished quantities, resulting in milder disease manifestations. Patients with OI often display a suite of clinical features, including recurrent fractures after minimal trauma, a characteristic blue hue to the sclera owing, conductive hearing loss, & dentinogenesis imperfecta. The latter is defined by small, opalescent teeth that erode swiftly due to weakened dentin.
Achondroplasia is the most prevalent form of dwarfism and is attributed to a congenital defect in bone development. The elongation of bones hinges on a process termed endochondral ossification. Here, chondrocytes lay down a cartilage model, which is subsequently supplanted by bone, courtesy of osteoblasts—a progression that is ongoing at the epiphyseal growth plates throughout childhood. Achondroplasia emerges from a defect in the proliferation of chondrocytes, thereby affecting endochondral ossification and the normal functioning of the epiphyseal growth plates.
Achondroplasia is genetically rooted in an autosomal dominant mutation of the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) gene, situated on chromosome 4, which encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor. In achondroplasia, a gain-of-function mutation in FGFR3 hyper-inhibits chondrocyte activity, curtailing the lengthening of bones produced through endochondral ossification. Bones formed via intramembranous ossification, such as the skull, remain unaffected. Clinically, achondroplasia exhibits an inheritance pattern. Achondroplasia results in shortened limbs, leg bowing, a pronounced head (macrocephaly) with a protruding forehead, and distinctive facial characteristics like a saddle-nose deformity and midface hypoplasia.
Osteopetrosis, commonly known as ‘marble bone disease’, is a hereditary bone disorder resulting from disrupted bone homeostasis. The crux of the pathology lies in the dysfunction of osteoclasts, cells instrumental in bone resorption. In individuals with osteopetrosis, osteoclasts fail to create an acidic milieu, which is important for dissolving hydroxyapatite. This impedes bone resorption, leading to an upswing in osteoblast activity, resulting in dense bones with a disorganized organized structure.
Clinically, osteopetrosis is marked by several telltale signs, including recurrent fractures—a paradoxical consequence of the brittle nature of the thickened yet chaotic bone— that predominantly occur in the pelvis, spine, and skull. Radiographic examinations reveals distinct bone features: bones are widened an exhibit a ‘bone-within-bone’ configuration, and there's an overgrowth at bone termini, culminating in the ‘Erlenmeyer flask deformity’. Pancytopenia also occurs due to the relentless growth of bone that infringes upon the marrow space. This marrow compression instigates hepatosplenomegaly as extramedullary hematopoiesis is activated in the liver and spleen. Cranial nerve entrapment can also occur, presenting with a range of clinical outcomes: vision deficits (due to optic nerve compression), hearing disturbances (from CN VIII compression), to facial paralysis (owing to CN VII impingement).
Osteopetrosis can manifest in varying degrees of severity based on its inheritance patterns. Mild osteopetrosis is autosomal dominant and often emerges later in life during adolescence or adulthood. In contrast, infantile malignant osteopetrosis is autosomal recessive is often fatal in infancy due to severe leukopenia.
Lesson Outline
Don't stop here!
Get access to 155 more Pathophysiology lessons & 13 more medical school learning courses with one subscription!
FAQs
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI), commonly known as 'brittle bone disease', is a congenital condition resulting from defects in type I collagen production, which is essential for bone strength. Individuals with OI are susceptible to fractures even from minimal force due to reduced bone flexibility. Other manifestations of OI include blue sclera, conductive hearing loss, and dentinogenesis imperfecta. There are different types of OI, with type 2 being the most severe—resulting from disruptions in the formation of the type I collagen triple helix, making it often incompatible with life.
Achondroplasia, the most prevalent form of dwarfism, arises from a congenital defect in bone formation. The root cause is an inherited defect in chondrocyte proliferation, leading to impaired endochondral ossification and abnormal epiphyseal growth plate function. This disorder originates from a mutation in the Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) on chromosome 4. This mutation excessively inhibits chondrocytes, preventing the elongation of bones produced by endochondral ossification. Individuals with achondroplasia display short limbs, a pronounced head, a flattened nose, and midface hypoplasia.
Osteopetrosis, termed ‘marble bone disease’, is a congenital disorder characterized by dysfunctional bone maintenance, and is distinct from osteogenesis imperfecta and achondroplasia. In osteopetrosis, osteoclasts can't create the acidic environment essential for bone resorption, leading to unchecked osteoblastic activity and the formation of dense but disorganized bone. Despite their thickness, these bones are fragile and frequently fracture. Commonly affected areas include the pelvis, spine, and skull. Other symptoms include pancytopenia, hepatosplenomegaly, and cranial nerve compression. There are various forms of osteopetrosis, with the severe infantile malignant osteopetrosis often being fatal in infancy.
Type I collagen—present in bones, tendons, and other tissues—is a pivotal in the formation, strength, and flexibility of these tissues. In osteogenesis imperfecta, a defect in type I collagen production leads to brittle and weak bones due to reduced flexibility. Specifically, in type 2 OI, the formation of the type I collagen triple helix is disrupted, resulting in severe manifestations. While collagen defects directly underlie conditions like osteogenesis imperfecta, they don't directly influence disorders like achondroplasia and osteopetrosis, which stem from different genetic or biochemical pathways.
Osteogenesis imperfecta and achondroplasia predominantly follow an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern, meaning an individual only needs one altered gene from either parent to develop the disorder. However, type 2 OI can arise from sporadic mutations. In contrast, infantile malignant osteopetrosis, a variant of osteopetrosis, is autosomal recessive and requires two copies of the altered gene for the condition to manifest.
